The Nilo-Saharan language family represents one of Africa’s most diverse and widely dispersed linguistic phyla. Spoken primarily across Central, Eastern, and parts of Northern Africa, these languages reflect deep historical connections among peoples living from the Nile Valley to the Sahel and the Great Lakes region. Although the internal classification of Nilo-Saharan remains debated among linguists, the family is generally recognized as encompassing around 130 languages spoken by approximately 46 million people.

This article offers a comprehensive overview of the classification, geographical distribution, major branches, and shared linguistic features of the Nilo-Saharan languages.

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1. Classification of the Nilo-Saharan Phylum

The Nilo-Saharan phylum is usually described as consisting of a large Eastern Sudanic branch alongside ten smaller, independent branches. These branches are:

• Eastern Sudanic
• Central Sudanic
• Saharan
• Songhay
• Maban
• Fur
• Kuliak
• Koman
• Berta
• Gumuz
• Kunama

Together, these groups span a vast area from the Sahara Desert to East Africa.

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2. Geographical Distribution

Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken across a wide belt of Africa, including:

• North Africa: Egypt, Sudan, Chad
• Central Africa: Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo
• East Africa: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Sudan

This wide distribution reflects ancient migration patterns, trade routes, and long-term contact with other major African language families such as Afro-Asiatic and Niger-Congo.

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3. Eastern Sudanic Branch

The Eastern Sudanic branch is the largest and most diverse component of the Nilo-Saharan family. It is spoken by approximately 22 million people across Chad, Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda.

3.1 Nubian Languages

Spoken in southern Egypt and Sudan, the Nubian group includes:

• Dongolawi
• Nobiin
• Midob
• Hill Nubian

The extinct Old Nubian is believed to be the ancestor of modern Nobiin. Altogether, Nubian languages have around 2 million speakers.

3.2 Nera (Nara)

Spoken in western Eritrea, Nera has approximately 90,000 speakers.

3.3 Temein Group

Found in the Nuba Hills of Sudan, this small group includes:

• Temein
• Doni
• Tese

These languages have fewer than 20,000 speakers combined.

3.4 Nyima Group

Also spoken in the Nuba Hills, Nyima languages include:

• Nyimang (Ama)
• Dinik

They are spoken by around 100,000 people.

3.5 Eastern Jebel Group

Located in eastern Sudan, this group includes:

• Gaam (the largest language)
• Aka
• Kelo
• Molo

Together they have about 80,000 speakers.

3.6 Surmic Languages

Spoken in southwestern Ethiopia and South Sudan, Surmic languages include:

• Majang
• Kwegu
• Me’en
• Suri
• Murle
• Didinga-Narim
• Tennet
• Kacipo-Balesi

The Surmic group has an estimated 400,000–500,000 speakers.

3.7 Daju Languages

Found in South Sudan and Chad, this group includes:

• Shatt
• Logorik (Liguri)
• Daju Mongo (Dar Daju)
• Dar Sila
• Nyala (Daju Dar Dur)
• Njalgulgule

They are spoken by roughly 250,000 people.

3.8 Taman Languages

Spoken in western Sudan and eastern Chad:

• Tama
• Sungor
• Mararit

This group has about 200,000 speakers.

3.9 Nilotic Languages

The Nilotic group is the largest within Eastern Sudanic, with approximately 18.7 million speakers across Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, South Sudan, Sudan, and Ethiopia. It is divided into three subgroups:

Western Nilotic

• Dinka
• Luo
• Nuer
  (about 9.4 million speakers)

Eastern Nilotic

• Bari
• Kakwa
• Teso (Ateso)
• Karamojong
• Turkana
• Toposa
• Lotuko (Otuho)
• Maasai
• Samburu
  (around 4.7 million speakers)

Southern Nilotic

• Kalenjin
• Datooga
  (about 4.6 million speakers)

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4. Central Sudanic Branch

The Central Sudanic languages are spoken by nearly 10 million people across South Sudan, the Central African Republic, Chad, Cameroon, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Major groups include:

• Lendu: Lendu, Ngiti (about 1.2 million speakers)
• Mangbetu: Mangbetu, Lombi, Asoa (over 1.1 million speakers)
• Moru-Madi: Lugbara, Aringa, Logo, Madi, Moru (over 4 million speakers)
• Mangbutu-Efe: Mangbutu, Lese, Efe, Mamvu (around 400,000–500,000 speakers)
• Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi: Approximately 40 languages including Ngambay, Sara, Bagirmi (around 3 million speakers)
• Kresh: Kresh (Gbaya), Aja (20,000–30,000 speakers)

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5. Other Nilo-Saharan Branches

Saharan

Spoken around Lake Chad (Chad, Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon):

• Kanuri
• Teda
• Daza
• Zaghawa

Approximately 7.5 million speakers.

Songhay

Spoken in Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, and Nigeria:

• Zarma
• Koyra Chiini
• Koyraboro Senni
• Dendi
• Tadaksahak
• Tasawaq

Around 4 million speakers.

Maban

Spoken along the Chad–Sudan–Central African Republic border:

• Maba
• Masalit
• Marfa
• Aiki

About 800,000 speakers.

Fur

Spoken in western Sudan and eastern Chad:

• Fur
• Amdang

Approximately 850,000 speakers.

Kuliak

Spoken in northeastern Uganda:

• Ik
• Soo
• Nyangi

About 10,000 speakers.

Koman

Spoken along the Sudan–Ethiopia border:

• Uduk
• Kwama
• Komo
• Opuuo
• Gule (extinct)

Roughly 50,000 speakers.

Berta

Spoken along the Sudan–Ethiopia border, with about 270,000 speakers.

Gumuz

Also spoken along the Sudan–Ethiopia border, with around 250,000 speakers.

Kunama

Spoken in Eritrea and Ethiopia:

• Kunama
• Ilit

About 200,000 speakers.

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6. Shared Linguistic Features of Nilo-Saharan Languages

Despite their diversity, Nilo-Saharan languages share several important structural traits.

6.1 Phonology

Tone
Most Nilo-Saharan languages are tonal, using two to four tones. Tones often serve grammatical functions rather than purely lexical ones. Some languages at the edges of the family, especially those in contact with Afro-Asiatic languages, have reduced or lost tonal distinctions.

ATR Vowel Harmony
Many languages—particularly in Central Sudanic, Nilotic, and Surmic—use Advanced Tongue Root (ATR) vowel harmony, dividing vowels into “tense” (ATR+) and “lax” (ATR–) sets that cannot mix within a word.

Consonants
Common features include:

• Implosive consonants
• Labial-velar stops (kp, gb)
• Labiodental flaps (notably in Mangbetu and Kresh)

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6.2 Morphology

Nominal Morphology

• Case marking through suffixes or tone is widespread.
• Grammatical gender is rare, except in some Nilotic languages.
• Complex number systems are common, including singulative marking, where the singular form is marked and the plural is unmarked.

Verbal Morphology

• Tense, aspect, person, and number are marked through affixes, sometimes with consonant mutation.
• The perfective vs. imperfective distinction is particularly important.
• Converbs (non-finite verb forms) are widely used to link actions in narratives.

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6.3 Syntax

Word order varies significantly across the family:

• VSO (Verb–Subject–Object) is common in eastern branches.
• SOV (Subject–Object–Verb) is more frequent in western branches.
• Some languages allow relatively free word order.

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The Nilo-Saharan language family stands as a testament to Africa’s extraordinary linguistic diversity. Spanning vast regions and encompassing dozens of cultures, these languages share deep structural similarities while maintaining remarkable internal variation. Understanding their classification and features not only enriches linguistic scholarship but also sheds light on the historical and cultural connections of African societies.

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